Alessandra Volta and the First Battery

Europe in the 18^th century was a time filled with new inventions and ideas. People developed new scientific methods, math formulas, architectural designs, and many other amazing things.  Born right into the middle of this time was a child named Alessandra Volta. Volta became one of the leaders of discovery during this time period in Europe.  While he was an important scientist in the field of electricity, he was certainly not the first person to study electricity, as people like Benjamin Franklin preceded him.  Volta's work with electricity inspired other scientists and led to more inventions.  Alessandra Volta was one of many pioneers of the electrical age, and his invention of the electric battery distinguished him as a one of the most prominent and influential scientists of all time.

                        Alessandra Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta was born on February 18, 1745 in the town of Como, Italy (Kline 446).  He went to public schools and studied to become a physicist.  Eventually, he became a physics professor at the Royal School in Como.  Volta’s career started an electrical revolution that began in 1775 with his invention of the electrophorus, an instrument that produced static electricity.  His most famous invention came about twenty five years later. The most important contribution Volta gave to the world of electricity and science is the electric battery.  This first battery is now known as the voltaic pile.  (Alessandra 1)

            To make his battery, Volta used a variety of materials.  He started by placing metal discs of materials like zinc and copper on moist objects like cloth or cardboard.  He used brine or other acidic solutions to moisten the material.  The metals discs were alternated with the moist cloth and he found that the taller the pile, the more electricity was produced.  (Bellis 1)  The battery inspired an invention revolution.  Soon after Volta’s announcement of the battery, many new inventions that used the battery for different purposes began appearing. 

The scientific career of Alessandra Volta made him well-known and a recognized person. Volta was honored with many medals and awards.  Volta’s most remembered distinction is something that remains with us to this very day.  Alessandra Volta had the electrical unit, the “volt”, named in his honor (Kline 446).  This achievement symbolizes all the work and effort Volta put into his studies and is a tribute to his greatness and shows how much influence Volta’s battery had in creating new ideas.  The original battery went through a series of improvements that are still taking place today. The invention of the first battery had an economic and social impact that we are still experiencing today.  Look around today and see how many objects we use every day that run on batteries.  Cars, cell phones, laptop computers, calculators, Ipods, planes, satellites, hearing aids, are just a few of the items we have in our world today that rely on batteries to function.  Just imagine what life would be like without batteries!

Bibliography:

Kline, Ronald R. “Volta, Alessandro.” World Book Encyclopedia. 2011 ed. Print.

Brodd, Ralph J., et al. “Battery.” World Book Encyclopedia. 2011 ed. Print.

“Alessandra Volta.” Ideafinder.com. Web. 19 May 2011. <http://ideafinder.com/history/inventors/volta.htm>

Bellis, Mary. “Battery.” About.com. Web. 19 May 2011. <http://inventors.about.com/od/bstartinventions/a/History-Of-The-Battery.htm>

Schlesinger, Henry. The Battery. New York: Smithsonian Books, 2010. Print.

Curley, Robert, ed. The 100 Most Influential Inventors of All Time. New York: Britannica, 2010. Print.

Pancaldi, Giuliano. Volta: Science and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2003. Print.

DIRECTIONS

1.  Take a copper disk from the supply tray and clip the red lead with the alligator clip to the disk.

2.  Plug the red lead into the red ‘V’ receptacle on the voltmeter.  Plug the black lead into the black receptacle in the voltmeter.

3.  Take a cotton pad from the supply tray.  Squeeze a little lemon juice on the pad until the pad is moist, not soaked.  Place the moist cotton pad on the copper disk.

4.  Now, place an aluminum disk on top of the moist cotton pad.

5.  Take the end of the black lead and touch it to the aluminum disk.

6.  Observe the reading on the voltmeter.

To make a more powerful (higher voltage) battery, attach more of the disks and pads.

1.  Start by placing a second copper disk on top of the aluminum disk.

2.  Then, place another lemon juice pad on top of your second copper disk.

3.  Place a second aluminum disk on top of the second lemon pad.

4.  Each time you add another battery, the voltage should about double. 

5.  Repeat this same pattern if you would like to continue increasing the voltage.  

The Age of Exploration

From around 1400 to 1600, European explorers set out to explore the world and this period was known as the Age of Exploration.  These explorers found out new things about the world, shared their discoveries with others, and changed the way people viewed the world.  Explorers traveled the world for many reasons including fortune, adventure, knowledge, land, and sometimes to promote Christianity.  Spain and Portugal were the first nations to send out explorers.  Eventually England, France, and the Netherlands sent out explorers as well.  Some of the most famous explorers of this time were Hernan Cortes, Christopher Columbus, and Ferdinand Magellan.  Exploration changed the European economy.  Many more goods were available and trade boomed.  The economic system of Europe grew into Capitalism.  Exploration also created some tension between the European nations as they tried to be the first to claim land, resources, and goods.  Eventually a war broke out between England and Spain.  Exploration also affected the Americas greatly.  Many people died in the Americas and the Inca and Aztec Empires were destroyed as European nations set up colonies and took over the land.   This Age of Exploration changed history for better or worse.

Europe Transformed

Many factors contributed to decline of the Western Roman empire.  One of the major factors was German invaders.  As troops were sent to the eastern half of the empire to aid in the constant war with Persia, German tribes and armies from the other side of the Rhine and Danube rivers invaded and conquered large parts of the western empire.  As the Germans lived in this territory, German leaders worked their way up the chain of command to eventually lead the Western Roman empire.  Too much money was being spent on the army and protecting Rome.  Taxes were increased to compensate for the extra spending on the army.  The increased taxes put a burden on the people of the western empire.  The Huns were a another reason for the decline of the Western Roman empire.  The Huns invaded the empire and fought their way to Rome.  While the Huns were camped outside the city, the rulers from inside Rome bribed the Huns with large sums of money to leave the city alone.  Surprisingly, they agreed.  However, this left the government with no money which put more strain on the society.  Some historians believe disease was another reason for the decline of the Western Roman Empire.  Hans Zinsser wrote, "A concentration of large populations in cities, free communication with all other parts of the world..., constant and extensive military activity involving the mobilization of armies in camps, and the movement of large forces back and forth from all corners of the world these alone are conditions which inevitably determine the outbreak of epidemic disease.  And against such outbreaks there was absolutely mo defense available at the time."  All of these factors led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire and changed the way people lived there.  

      One way life was changed in Western Europe was the growth of Christianity.  Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity a week before he died.  Money that could have been spent on temples, shrines, gods, and goddesses was now given to Christians and used for Christian buildings.  Another way life changed in Western Europe was the decline of the economy.  Increased taxes put a burden on the people.  Higher taxes were not enough to help the government so they devalued the currency.  This caused inflation.  The increased prices made it very hard for people to buy neccesary goods to survive.  Also, for many years, Western Europe was ruled by a Roman, but over time, the leaders became German.   As more and more land was conquered by the Germans, Roman culture was lost, and Latin, the language of the Romans, was lost.   Another hardship on the people of Western Europe was the fact that when the Vandals conquered Carthage, a city in North Africa, they stopped supplying grain to the city of Rome.  This caused a problem for the Romans because it was their main supply of food.  People now struggle to find food.  As they empire fell apart, the lives of the Romans deteriorated.

Medieval Middle East Medicinal Contributions

Medieval Middle Eastern Doctors started a lot of the techniques doctors use today.  Muslims created the worlds first hospitals for doctors to treat patients in.  Our doctors today still practice in hospitals.  Doctors would treat ailments through drugs, diet, and exercise similar to doctors today.  Medieval doctors had drugs to dull pain, clean wounds, heal wounds, and put you to sleep like common drugs doctors still use today.  An important discovery during this time by Al - Razi was that infectious diseases are caused by bacteria.  This helped doctors begin to diagnose and treat deadly diseases.

Medieval Middle East Mathematics Contributions

Something a mathematician uses today is algebra.  Algebra helped mathematicians find unknown numbers.  Algebra was created by an Arab named Al - Khwarizmi.  His book on algebra was used in schools all the way up to the 18th century.  Medieval Muslims created the number zero.  Mathematicians needed to know the concept of zero.  This helped them write larger numbers.  The number zero is still used in our daily life.

The Historical Relationship Between Islam, Judaism, and Christianity

Islam, Judaism, and Christianity are all monotheistic religions whose followers worship the same God.  Muhammad founded Islam,  Moses founded Judaism, and Jesus founded Christianity.  Judaism was the first monotheistic religion, then Christianity followed after.  Jesus was a Jew and the people who believed that Jesus was the son of God became the Christians.  Muhammad was the last prophet and created Islam.  Muhammad taught his followers that all people who worshiped one God are equal.  Abraham was the person who started the practice of monotheism.  All three of these religions developed from his idea.

The Importance of the Qur'an

The Qur'an is the holy book of the Muslims.  The poetic beauty of this book helped attract new believers to convert to Islam. The Qur'an tell the stories of Muhammad.

The Life and teachings of Muhammad

Muhammad was born in 570 C.E. in the city of Mekkah.  He was born into a humble family in the Hashim clan.  Before he was born, his father died, and when he was young his mother and grandfather died.  He then lived with his uncle and traveled around on merchant trips with him.  When he was old enough, he became a merchant of his own.  When he was 25 he married Khadijah, a widow.  In 610 C.E., Muhammad started to go to pray in a cave in the mountains.  This is where the angel Gabriel told Muhammad he was the messenger of God.  Muhammad then founded the Islamic religion.  Muhammad's wife was the first to convert to Islam. Islam is a monotheistic religion.  For 22 years, Muhammad received messages from God through the angel Gabriel.  Muhammad soon had a small group of followers called Muslims.  Muhammad began to preach Islam to the other Makkans.  People in his clan and other clans began to become followers.  The leaders of Mekkah did not agree with Muhammad and thought he was gaining too much power, so they started a boycott against Muhammad.  Because of the boycott many of the Muslims began to starve, and his wife died because of this.  After these hard times, Muhammad went on a journey known as The Night Journey to Jerusalem.  There he prayed with other prophets such as Jesus and moses, and then God took him up to Heaven.

Life in Arabia Before Muhammad

A group of families ruled the city of Makkah, a trading and religious center.  These families did not share any of their wealth with the poorer and weaker clans of the city.  The people of Makkah were polytheistic.  That means they worshiped more than one god.  They would worship a box that was created by Abraham for God. Instead of worshiping the one God, the Arabs stored many statues of gods in the box to worship them.  Many people who lived in the desert and farther away came to worship gods at Makkah.  Since there was no central government in Arabia, the Arabs would pledge their loyalty to a local tribe.

The Mountains Adaptations

One adaptation is terracing.  This is when people create flat platforms on the side of hills and mountains so they can grow crops.  The people used dams and irrigation systems along with the terracing to growth their crops in the mountains.  Another adaptation is that their houses were made out of mud bricks.

The Mountains

The mountains in the Arabian Peninsula are as tall as 12,000 feet high.  The rain and the elevation help keep the mountain region cool.  Old dry river beds fill with water during heavy rain storms.

mountains in Arabian Peninsula

Dry river in mountains 

The Coastal Plain Adaptations

One adaptation the Arabs used to help grow crops in the coastal plain was irrigation.  This allowed them to get water to their crops by using dams, wells, and other systems. They stored rainwater in canals and reservoirs and used it to aid them in growing their crops.  Another adaptation the Arabs on the coastal plains developed was a system of trade.  Since they had access to seaports along the coast, they traded with other cultures across the waters.

The Coastal Plain

The coastal plain of the Arabian Peninsula ranges from 5 to 40 miles inland from the coast.  The coastal plain has some natural harbors and many dry river beds.  Since the climate of this area is damp and rainy, the dry river beds sometimes fill with water.

The Oases Adaptations

One way the Arabs have adapted is to use the land around oases to grow crops.  Some nomads became sedentary and settled around the oases where cities and towns formed.  The farmers in the settlements bartered with the nomads who passed through.  Nomads traded goods for the farmers' crops.

The Oases

Oases are places where water has seeped to the surface to form a spring or water hole above the trapped underground water.  Oases vary in size, and plant life grows around them.

The Desert Adaptations

One way the Arabs have adapted to the desert is by becoming nomadic. They are nomadic because they need to keep moving to find resources in the desert, especially water and plants.  They also wear loose fitting clothing and cotton headdresses to protect themselves from the heat, dust, and flies.

The Desert

The desert environment in the Arabian Peninsula is very dry and has crazy temperatures. Temperatures during the day can reach 120 degrees and at night temperatures can drop below freezing.  Since there is almost no rainfall in the desert, there are many droughts.  When it does rain, it comes in a torrent and causes flash floods.

Desert in Saudi Arabia

Another desert in Saudi Arabia

Article Summary

The Indian National Cricket team has recently beaten the West Indies team and has moved on to the quarter finals in the Cricket World Cup.  This win means that they will play Austrailia.  Since the West Indies lost, they will be playing Pakistan in the losers pool.  Yuvraj Singh was India's leading score with 113 of India's 268.


Link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/9430747.stm

Indian Project Summaries

Indian Medicine and Surgery:
Medicine and surgery have changed in India over many generations but it all started with people like Shushruta.

Engineering Feats;
Engineering large buildings was significant to Indian's because they were religious places of worship, democratic places of power, and also just for beauty.

Indian Food:
Indian's have eaten the same foods for thousands of years such as rice, bananas, and mangoes.

Indian Deities:
There are over 330 million deities that all look different and are worshiped by Hindus.

Geography of India

This is my PowerPoint presentation of India's Geography.


You can see the slides by clicking the link below:


Geography of India Presentation


Here's the explanation for my presentation:

Physical Geography

Slide 1:  My project is on the geography of India including the climate and natural resources. 

Slide 2:  India is a large country that covers 1,269,219 square miles. India is approximately one third the size of the United States.  It extends from about 8 degrees to nearly 33 degrees North.  The southern half of India is shaped like a triangle and extends south into the Indian Ocean.  The Arabian Sea is to the west of India and the Bay of Bengal is on the east side.  To the Northwest, Pakistan borders India, and to the North and East are China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. 

Slide 3:  The highest elevation in India is the Himalayan Mountains in the north.  Central India is the next highest.  The northern plains and around the coast are the lowest elevation. 

Slide 4:  At the top of India, the Himalayas separate India from the rest of Asia.  The Himalayas are the tallest mountains in the world.  Not only are they the tallest, but they are also the youngest mountain range in the world.  They are about 1,500 miles long and 100 to 200 miles wide.  The tallest mountain in India is Kanchenjunga, which is 28,208 feet high. 

Slide 5:  To the south of the Himalayas are the northern plains.  They stretch from the south of the Himalayas toward central India and are about 1,500 miles long.  This area is a great place for growing crops, and it is the largest alluvial plain in the world.  An alluvial plain is land formed from soil left behind by rivers.  The Ganges River formed this alluvial plain. 

Slide 6:  The Ganges River is the most famous river in India with a length of 1,500 miles.  It is also known as "Ganga."  The Ganges starts high in the Himalayas and winds its way down to empty into the Bay of Bengal.  The delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world.  To Hindus, the river is sacred.  They bathe in the water to purify themselves. 

Slide 7:  The Thar Desert is located at the border of India and Pakistan.  It is in the Indian state of Rajasthan.  It is about 500 miles long and 300 miles wide. 

Slide 8:  Most of Central India is a plateau, known as the "Deccan Plateau."  It is covered mostly by thorn scrub forest and deciduous broad leaf forests.  Several major cities with important manufacturing, industrial, and agricultural processing centers are located on the plateau.  The plateau is bordered on the east and the west by the Ghats. The Ghats are heavily forested land where many animals such as elephants, monkeys, and other wildlife live.

Climate

Slide 9:  The wide variety of terrain in India creates various climates throughout the country.  As you can see on the map, a majority of India is subtropical or tropical.  There is some arid climate up by the Thar Desert, and a highland climate exists by the Himalayas.  There are six climate regions in India, but they all have three seasons: he cool season, the hot season, and the rainy season. 

Slide 10:  The cool season is usually from October to February.  In the Himalayan Mountains, during the cool season the foothills get a lot of snow.  It is cold and damp and the temperatures can drop well under freezing in some parts of the Himalayas.  In the Northern Plains during the winter, or cool season, the temperature during the day is moderately warm, but at night temperatures drop to around freezing.  Central and Southern India have milder winters, but evenings can be chilly.

 Slide 11:  The hot season is much shorter than the cool season and only lasts from March to June.  In the Thar Desert, temperatures can rise up to 123 degrees F!  In the Northern Plains temperatures can reach a scorching 115 degrees F.  Central India tends to have more moderate temperatures.  Southern India tends to be hot and humid.  However the coast benefits from cooling breezes, which makes it more pleasant. 

Slide 12:  The third season is the rainy season.  The rainy, or wet, season lasts from about June to September and affects all of India, but the rain falls most heavily in Northern India.  This is the most critical part of the year to India. 

Slide 13:  Seasonal winds cause the monsoons.  During the rainy season, the winds come from the southwest over the water which causes the monsoons.  During the rest of the year, the wind comes from the northeast providing drier weather.  The monsoons are welcome in India because they provide rain for the crops which is needed to supply the population with food.

Natural Resources

Slide 14:  An important natural resource in India is the land because of agriculture.   Agriculture is the primary source of income for approximately half of India.  Many crops are grown in the fertile area called the Gangetic Plain.  The Gangetic Plain can produce up to two or three harvests a year.  Some of the crops grown in India include rice, wheat, millet, cotton and maize.  India is also one of the world's largest producer of bananas.

Slide 15:  Here are some pictures of the popular crops in India.

 Slide 16:  The forests also contribute to India's natural resources.  About 21% of India is forest.  On the map, the light green areas are forests.   Because of a diverse climate, India's land has varied forests. 

Slide 17:  Trees that can be used commercially are teak, rosewood, bamboo, and sal.  These trees are used to make furniture and are used as a construction material. 

Slide 18:  Coal is a main mineral resource of India.  Coal deposits can be found in various places in India as shown on the map.  One of the largest coal mines in India is the Tata Coal Mine at west Bokaro.  India is also one of top producers of iron ore.  Other minerals found in India include manganese, copper, chromate, phosphate, rock apatite, gypsum, limestone, and mica.